. . .
[an] argument is a claim or series of claims supported by evidence through reasoning
reasoning refers to the ability to make an inference or a judgment based on evidence (Gunn 2017, loc. 463)
logic refers to the structure of reasoning (Gunn 2017, loc. 463)
Many everyday arguments leave premises unsaid (enthymeme)
an argument that consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion drawn from those premises (Gunn 2017, loc. 467)
- Analogical
- Deductive
- Inductive
- Abductive
Stephen Toulmin provides a model for understanding practical (every day) arguments based on analyzing legal cases.
(Gunn focused on 1 – 3)
Warrant is an odd choice of word, so remember:
- you claim “dogs are great pets”
- you ground your claim with evidence that dogs are intelligent, obedient, and loving
- have you shown they are great pets? not yet
- you warrant that great pets are perceptive, easily trained, and affectionate, which maps to dogs’ attributes
- this connects the claim with the evidence
- intelligent, obedient, loving ↔︎ perceptive, trainable, affectionate
“I should not have eaten that foot-long submarine sandwich because it made me sick. Stormycloud Subs should not sell sandwiches that large.”
A promising strategy for reducing increasing obesity rates, already adopted by seven states, is to deter consumers from purchasing unhealthy foods through a tax on soda or sugary drinks and junk food (Lohman, 2002). Americans today are consuming almost 20% more calories than they did in the early 1980s, and those calories are coming from increasingly less-healthy sources, mainly high-fat and high-sugar processed foods (USDA, 2002). Furthermore, processed foods and drinks are increasingly more affordable than the fruits, vegetables, and whole grains needed to sustain a healthy diet (Marsh, 2011). Assuming that cost is a more pertinent factor of food choice than personal taste, increasing the price of soda and junk food through taxes, while using that revenue to subsidize unprocessed fruits and vegetables would entice consumers to choose healthier products as they become more affordable than their unhealthy counterparts.
There is evidence to suggest that cost, more so than preference, influences purchasing choices. A year after New York increased cigarette taxes from $1.25 to $2.75, smoking rates dropped by 12% to a historic low (Harutyunyan, 2009). Although some might argue that smoking is more of a lifestyle choice than eating, it is rather the choice of what foods to eat that will hopefully be affected in the long run.
Additionally, this tax might hurt those in areas with little access to fresh produce and whole grains, such as in low-income urban areas; therefore the “junk food tax” would only work if healthy food choices are made not only affordable but easily available to low-income consumers through the use of subsidies (Marsh, 2011). However, if precautions are taken to ensure equal access to healthy food among all citizens, then using the “carrot” of subsidized healthy food and nutrition education along with the “stick” of a food tax, the typical American diet can– and should– be changed for the better.
. . .
A junk food tax has a good chance of being successful and should be implemented.
. . .
Statistics about food consumption highlight the need for a program encouraging healthy food consumption.
Evidence is specific to the claim (i.e., junk food consumption; not, yet, smoking cessation).
. . .
Customers make purchasing decisions largely based on cost.
A year after New York increased cigarette taxes from $1.25 to $2.75, smoking rates dropped by 12% to a historic low.
. . .
. . .
“if precautions are taken to ensure equal access to healthy food among all citizens, then…”
an argument that diverts an audience away from an issue to a person, or that unfairly suggests someone’s character is to blame for a problem (Gunn 2017, loc. 479–482)
example?
. . .
“Ayn Rand was a cruel and insensitive person; therefore, you should not believe in her philosophy of objectivism.”
A correlation is used to imply causation.
example?
. . .
Dinosaurs ate vegetables and went extinct; eating vegetables will kill us.
an appeal to popular feelings or commonly held emotions about a claim or an assertion that is not supported by good evidence (Gunn 2017, loc. 479–482)
example?
. . .
“Four out of five dentists would recommend chewing Cheesit gum!”
(also “appeal to authority” fallacy)
a speaker claims that you have only two choices in making a decision, when there may in fact be many other choices (Gunn 2017, loc. 479–482)
example?
. . .
You can continue as you were or give up.
a conclusion that does not logically follow from one or more premises. (Gunn 2017, loc. 479–482)
example?
. . .
“All people are mortal; Socrates is a person; therefore, Socrates cannot dance.”
Circular reasoning wherein an argument’s premises assume the truth of the conclusion instead of supporting it. (Also known as “assuming the conclusion.”)
example?
. . .
Ghosts exist because I saw a ghost in the closet.
a statement that is distracting and actually has no relevance to the issue under discussion; a red herring misdirects the attention of the audience (Gunn 2017, loc. 479–482)
example?
. . .
“If eating deep fried ice cream is wrong, I don’t want to be right!” (Gunn 2017, loc. 479–482)
something bad or undesirable will inevitably happen under a debated proposal
example?
. . .
“If you eat just one fast-food hamburger, you will get addicted and find yourself eating nothing but fast-food hamburgers.” (Gunn 2017, loc. 479–482)
When you oversimplify an opponent’s argument, or when you claim that your opponent argued something that she or he didn’t, you commit the … straw-man fallacy. (Gunn 2017, loc. 479–482)
example?
. . .
“We can get rid of all street parking for bike lanes, what of shop owners and the elderly?”
(No one said all street parking should be eliminated.)
Find a “live” example of a fallacy on the web.
Google “Recognizing Fallacies Exercises”, review their fallacy, and complete quiz.
The Toulmin exercise is adapted from Joe Essid, University of Richmon via Creative Commons licensing.